Seasonal Assessment of Indoor Air Quality in Coastal Communities of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
Keywords:
Indoor air quality, Particulate matter, Combustion gases, Exposure, Coastal communities, Akwa Ibom StateAbstract
This study assessed the seasonal dynamics and pollutant interactions of indoor air quality (IAQ) across three coastal communities in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria, viz, Ibeno, Eastern Obolo, and Ikot Abasi, during the wet and dry seasons. IAQ parameter measurements were carried out to determine concentrations of particulate matter (PM₁, PM₂, PM₅, PM₁₀), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrogen monoxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ozone (O₃), relative humidity (RH), and temperature (TEMP) using Portable Air Quality Monitors (Fluke 985 Particle Counter, Fluke 975 AirMeter, and Aeroqual Series 500 Monitor). Descriptive statistics, correlation matrix analysis, and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were used to explore spatial-seasonal variations and pollutant interrelationships. Elevated pollutant levels were recorded during the dry season, especially for PM and combustion gases, driven by limited ventilation, fuel-based cooking, and poor indoor air circulation. Ibeno recorded high PM concentrations in the dry season, while Ikot Abasi showed CO and NOx peaks, indicating indoor fuel usage. Eastern Obolo had moderate pollution but strong seasonal contrasts, with wet seasons showing lower pollutants accumulation but higher RH levels. Correlation analysis revealed strong positive relationships among PM₁, PM₂, PM₅, PM₁₀, CO, and CO₂ in the dry season, pointing to indoor combustion as a common source, while O₃ showed weak or negative correlations with NO, reflecting typical indoor photochemistry. PCA identified three main components: PC1 (over 50% variance) linked to PMs and combustion gases, PC2 to gaseous pollutants (NO, NO₂, O₃), and PC3 to meteorological factors (RH, TEMP). These patterns were consistent across locations but varied by season and space. The results underscore the health risks of poor indoor air quality in rural and peri-urban households and highlight the need for cleaner fuels, better ventilation, and seasonal exposure management. The combination of correlation analysis and PCA provides a strong basis for understanding pollutant dynamics and guiding community-based IAQ interventions.
References
Abdel-Salam, M. M. M. (2021). Seasonal variation in indoor concentrations of air pollutants in residential buildings. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 71(6), 761-777. https://doi.-org/10.1080/10962247.2021.1895367
Addo, I. A., & Olajide, O. A. (2021). Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals: Considerations for Household and Indoor Air Pollution in Nigeria and Ghana. In T. G. Nubi, I. Anderson, T. Lawanson, & B. Oyalowo (Eds.), Housing and SDGs in Urban Africa (pp. 147-164). Springer Singapore. https://-doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4424-2_8
Agbo, K. E. (2022). The Effect of Household Energy Use on Residential Indoor Air Pollution in South East Nigeria. Afrika Focus, 35(2), 388-407. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1163/2031356X-35020009
Agbo, K. E., Walgraeve, C., Eze, J. I., Ugwoke, P. E., Ukoha, P. O., & Van Langenhove, H. (2021). Household indoor concentration levels of NO2, SO2 and O3 in Nsukka, Nigeria. Atmospheric Environment, 244, 117978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117978
Al-Hemoud, A., Al-Awadi, L., Al-Rashidi, M., Rahman, K. A., Al-Khayat, A., & Behbehani, W. (2017). Comparison of indoor air quality in schools: Urban vs. Industrial 'oil & gas' zones in Kuwait. Building and Environment, 122, 50-60. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.06.001
Amegah, A. K., & Jaakkola, J. J. K. (2016). Household air pollution and the sustainable development goals. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 94(3), 215–221.
Awoyele, O., Kamiyo, O., & Adewumi, O. (2025). Critical Review on Dispersion of Gaseous Pollutants from Indoor Cooking Facilities. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 29(5), 1621-1632.
Balmes, J. R. (2019). Household air pollution from domestic combustion of solid fuels and health. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 143(6), 1979-1987. https://doi.org/https://doi.org-/10.1016/j.jaci.2019.04.016
Basil, A.-A. M., Okwuosa, C. C., Uzuegbuanam, F. O., & Ugwu, L. E. (2024). A seasonal investigation of indoor air quality in relation to architectural features in government office buildings in Enugu, Nigeria. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 26885. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-78160-5
Brown, S. K. (2001). Indoor air quality. Indoor Air. Indoor Air, 11(1), 72-79.
Cavaleiro Rufo, J., Madureira, J., Paciencia, I., Slezakova, K., Pereira Mdo, C., Aguiar, L., Teixeira, J. P., Moreira, A., & Oliveira Fernandes, E. (2016). Children exposure to indoor ultrafine particles in urban and rural school environments [journal article]. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, 23(14), 13877-13885. https://-doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6555-y
Deng, Z., Dong, B., Guo, X., & Zhang, J. (2024). Impact of Indoor Air Quality and Multi-domain Factors on Human Productivity and Physiological Responses: A Comprehensive Review. Indoor Air, 2024(1), 5584960. https://doi.org/10.1-155/2024/5584960
Dimitroulopoulou, S., Dudzińska, M. R., Gunnarsen, L., Hägerhed, L., Maula, H., Singh, R., Toyinbo, O., & Haverinen-Shaughnessy, U. (2023). Indoor air quality guidelines from across the world: An appraisal considering energy saving, health, productivity, and comfort. Environment International, 178, 108127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envin-t.2023.108127
Ezzati, M., & Kammen, D. M. (2001). Indoor air pollution from biomass combustion and acute respiratory infections in Kenya: an exposure-response study. The Lancet, 358(9282), 619-624. http://linkinghub.-elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673601057774
Ezzati, M., & Kammen, D. M. (2002). The health impacts of exposure to indoor air pollution from solid fuels in developing countries: knowledge, gaps, and data needs. Environmental Health Perspectives, 110(11), 1057-1068. https://doi.org/doi:10.1289/ehp.021101057
Fidelis, C. O., Emoyan, O. O., & Oseji, J. O. (2020). Indoor and outdoor air quality in selected residential buildings in the Niger Delta. Nigerian Journal of Environmental Sciences and Technology, 4(1), 190–200.
Gilbert, J. A., & Hartmann, E. M. (2024). The indoors microbiome and human health. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 22(12), 742-755. https://doi.org/10.1038/s4157-9-024-01077-3
Han, Y., Hu, Y., & Qian, F. (2011). Effects of air temperature and humidity on particle deposition. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 89(10), 2063-2069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd-.2011.02.001
Ite, A. E., Harry, T. A., Obadimu, C. O., & Ekwere, I. O. (2019). Comparison of Indoor Air Quality in Schools: Urban vs. Industrial 'Oil & Gas' Zones in Akwa Ibom State – Nigeria. Journal of Environment Pollution and Human Health, 7(1), 15-26. http://pubs-.sciepub.com/
Ite, A. E., & Ibok, U. J. (2013). Gas Flaring and Venting Associated with Petroleum Exploration and Production in the Nigeria's Niger Delta. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 1(4), 70-77. https://doi.org/10.12691/env-1-4-1
Ite, A. E., Ibok, U. J., Ite, M. U., & Petters, S. W. (2013). Petroleum Exploration and Production: Past and Present Environmental Issues in the Nigeria's Niger Delta. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 1(4), 78-90. http://pubs.sciepub.com/env/1/4/2
Ite, A. E., & Ite, I. A. (2024a). Indoor Air Pollution: Sources and Occurrence, Health Effects, and Mitigation Strategies. Environmental Contaminants Reviews, 7(1), 62-85.
Ite, A. E., & Ite, I. A. (2024b). Organic Micropollutants in the Air: Origin and Occurrence, Environmental and Health Effects, and Mitigation Strategies. Environment & Ecosystem Science (EES), 8(1), 36-52.
Ite, A. E., Ogunkunle, C. O., Obadimu, C. O., Asuaiko, E. R., & Ibok, U. J. (2017). Particulate Matter and Staff Exposure in an Air-Conditioned Office in Akwa Ibom State University - Nigeria. Journal of Atmospheric Pollution, 5(1), 24-32. http://pubs.sciepub.com/jap/5/1/4
Ite, A. E., Udousoro, I. I., & Ibok, U. J. (2014). Distribution of Some Atmospheric Heavy Metals in Lichen and Moss Samples Collected from Eket and Ibeno Local Government Areas of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 2(1), 22-31. http://pubs.sciepub.com/env/2/1/5
Ite, A. E., Ufot, U. F., Ite, M. U., Isaac, I. O., & Ibok, U. J. (2016). Petroleum Industry in Nigeria: Environmental Issues, National Environmental Legislation and Implementation of International Environmental Law. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 4(1), 21-37. http://pubs.sciepub.com/env/4/1/3
Jo, W.-K., & Lee, J.-Y. (2006). Indoor and outdoor levels of respirable particulates (PM10) and Carbon Monoxide (CO) in high-rise apartment buildings. Atmospheric Environment, 40(32), 6067-6076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.-atmosenv.2006.05.037
Jolliffe, I. T., & Cadima, J. (2016). Principal component analysis: a review and recent developments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 374(2065), 20150202. https://doi:10.1098/rsta.-2015.0202
Jones, A. P. (1999). Indoor air quality and health. Atmospheric Environment, 33(28), 4535-4564. https://doi.org/https-://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00272-1
Kadiri, K., Turcotte, D., Gore, R., Bello, A., & Woskie, S. R. (2024). Determinants of Indoor NO2 and PM2.5 Concentration in Senior Housing with Gas Stoves. Toxics, 12(12), 901. https://www.mdpi.-com/2305-6304/12/12/901
Kampa, M., & Castanas, E. (2008). Human health effects of air pollution. Environmental Pollution, 151(2), 362-367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol-.2007.06.012
Kanu, O. P., & Leton, T. G. (2022). Indoor Air Pollution in Rumuewhera Community in Obio-Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. . Journal of Engineering Research and Reports, 22(8), 62–79. https://doi.org/10.9734-/jerr/2022/v22i817555
Kelly, F. J., Fuller, G. W., Walton, H. A., & Fussell, J. C. (2012). Monitoring air pollution: use of early warning systems for public health. Respirology, 17(1), 7-19. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1843.2011.02065.x
Lala, M. A., Onwunzo, C. S., Adesina, O. A., & Sonibare, J. A. (2023). Particulate matters pollution in selected areas of Nigeria: Spatial analysis and risk assessment. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 7, 100288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.-cscee.2022.100288
Łaska, G., & Ige, A. R. (2023). A Review: Assessment of Domestic Solid Fuel Sources in Nigeria. Energies, 16(12), 4722. https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/16/12/4722
Lazaridis, M. (2025). Particulate matter concentrations and human exposure approaches in the world microenvironments. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 18(2), 471-484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-024-01653-9
Maes, W. H., & Verbist, B. (2012). Increasing the sustainability of household cooking in developing countries: Policy implications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(6), 4204-4221. https://doi.org/10.1016/-j.rser.2012.03.031
Mamuya, S., & Bachwenkizi, J. (2024). A review on indoor air pollution in developing countries. In Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-99967-0.00273-8
Mamuya, S., & Bachwenkizi, J. (2025). Review of Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries. In S. R. Quah (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Public Health (Third Edition) (pp. 198-203). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.10-16/B978-0-323-99967-0.00273-8
Manisalidis, I., Stavropoulou, E., Stavropoulos, A., & Bezirtzoglou, E. (2020). Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review. Front Public Health, 8, 14. https://doi.org/-10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014
Mannan, M., & Al-Ghamdi, S. G. (2021). Indoor Air Quality in Buildings: A Comprehensive Review on the Factors Influencing Air Pollution in Residential and Commercial Structure. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(6). https://doi.org-/10.3390/ijerph18063276
McCarron, A., Uny, I., Caes, L., Lucas, S. E., Semple, S., Ardrey, J., & Price, H. (2020). Solid fuel users’ perceptions of household solid fuel use in low- and middle-income countries: A scoping review. Environment International, 143, 105991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.-envint.2020.105991
Mendes, A., Pereira, C. C., & Teixeira, J. P. (2024). Sick building syndrome. In P. Wexler (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Fourth Edition) (pp. 505-512). Academic Press. https://doi.org/-10.1016/B978-0-12-824315-2.00170-6
Morawska, L. (2010). Indoor air quality and health. Air Quality and Climate Change, 44(4), 12-14.
Nassikas, N. J., McCormack, M. C., Ewart, G., Balmes, J. R., Bond, T. C., Brigham, E., Cromar, K., Goldstein, A. H., Hicks, A., Hopke, P. K., Meyer, B., Nazaroff, W. W., Paulin, L. M., Rice, M. B., Thurston, G. D., Turpin, B. J., Vance, M. E., Weschler, C. J., Zhang, J., & Kipen, H. M. (2024). Indoor Air Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution: Health Consequences, Policy, and Recommendations: An Official American Thoracic Society Workshop Report. Annals of the American Thoracic Society, 21(3), 365-376. https://doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.202312-1067ST
Ngele, S. O., Onwuka, O. S., & Edeani, S. (2020). Evaluation of indoor air pollution and associated respiratory health risks in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 14(3), 89–97.
NPC. (2009). 2006 Population and Housing Census of the Federal Republic of Nigeria: National and State Population and Housing Tables. National Population Commission (NPC).
Nriagu, J., Udofia, E., Ekong, I., & Ebuk, G. (2016). Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(3), 346. http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/-13/3/346
Odubanjo, O. F., Falaiye, O. A., Orosun, M. M., & Sanni, M. (2024). Investigation of particulate matter Air Quality Index (AQI) and risk assessment in some locations in Nigeria. Journal of the Nigerian Society of Physical Sciences, 6, 2120-2120.
Oguntoke, O., Opeolu, B. O., & Babatunde, N. (2010). Indoor Air Pollution and Health Risks among Rural Dwellers in Odeda Area, South-Western Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management, 3(2), 39-46.
Rehfuess, E. A., Bruce, N. G., & Smith, K. R. (2011). Solid Fuel Use: Health Effect. In O. N. Editor-in-Chief: Jerome (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Environmental Health (pp. 150-161). Elsevier. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-52272-6.00716-9
Saetae, S., Abulude, F. O., Arasaki, K., Ndamitso, M. M., Akinnusotu, A., Oluwagbayide, S. D., Matsumi, Y., Kawamoto, K., & Nakayama, T. (2025). Seasonal and Diurnal Variations of Indoor PM2.5 in Six Households in Akure, Nigeria. Atmosphere, 16(5), 603. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/16/5/603
Sun, Y., Zhuang, G., Wang, Y., Han, L., Guo, J., Dan, M., Zhang, W., Wang, Z., & Hao, Z. (2004). The air-borne particulate pollution in Beijing—concentration, composition, distribution and sources. Atmospheric Environment, 38(35), 5991-6004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.at-mosenv.2004.07.009
Sundell, J. (2004). On the history of indoor air quality and health. Indoor Air, 14 Suppl 7, 51-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2004.00273.x
Tsutsumi, H., Tanabe, S.-i., Harigaya, J., Iguchi, Y., & Nakamura, G. (2007). Effect of humidity on human comfort and productivity after step changes from warm and humid environment. Building and Environment, 42(12), 4034-4042. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.06.037
USEPA. (2020). Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) for Ozone and Related Photochemical Oxidants (EPA/600/R-20/012).
Vilčeková, S., Kapalo, P., Mečiarová, Ľ., Burdová, E. K., & Imreczeová, V. (2017). Investigation of Indoor Environment Quality in Classroom - Case Study. Procedia Engineering, 190, 496-503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.p-roeng.2017.05.369
Wang, J., & Ogawa, S. (2015). Effects of Meteorological Conditions on PM2.5 Concentrations in Nagasaki, Japan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(8), 9089-9101. https://www.mdpi.com-/1660-4601/12/8/9089
Wang, T., Xue, L., Brimblecombe, P., Lam, Y. F., Li, L., & Zhang, L. (2017). Ozone pollution in China: A review of concentrations, meteorological influences, chemical precursors, and effects. Science of the Total Environment, 575, 1582-1596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.081
Weschler, C. J. (2016). Roles of the human occupant in indoor chemistry. Indoor Air, 26(1), 6-24. https://doi.org/-10.1111/ina.12185
Weschler, C. J., & Carslaw, N. (2018). Indoor Chemistry. Environmental Science and Technology, 52(5), 2419-2428. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b06387
WHO. (2010). WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Selected Pollutants. WHO. https://books.google.com.ng/books?id=St0a6djRU_cC
WHO. (2014). WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Household Fuel Combustion. World Health Organization.
WHO. (2021). WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines : Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10), Ozone, Nitrogen dioxide, Sulphur Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide. World Health Organization.
WHO. (2024). Household Air Pollution. World Health Organization. Retrieved October 16, 2024 from https://www.who.int/-news-room/fact-sheets/detail/house-hold-air-pollution-and-health
Wolkoff, P., Azuma, K., & Carrer, P. (2021). Health, work performance, and risk of infection in office-like environments: The role of indoor temperature, air humidity, and ventilation. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 233, 113709. https://doi.org-/10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113709
Wu, Y., Liu, J., Zhai, J., Cong, L., Wang, Y., Ma, W., Zhang, Z., & Li, C. (2018). Comparison of dry and wet deposition of particulate matter in near-surface waters during summer. PLoS One, 13(6), e0199241. https://doi.org/10.1371-/journal.pone.0199241
Xing, Q., & Sun, M. (2022). Characteristics of PM2.5 and PM10 Spatio-Temporal Distribution and Influencing Meteorological Conditions in Beijing. Atmosphere, 13(7), 1120. https://www.-mdpi.com/2073-4433/13/7/1120
Xu, Q., Wang, S., Guo, Y., Wang, C., Huang, F., Li, X., Gao, Q., Wu, L., Tao, L., Guo, J., Wang, W., & Guo, X. (2017). Acute exposure to fine particulate matter and cardiovascular hospital emergency room visits in Beijing, China. Environmental Pollution, 220, 317-327. https://doi.org-/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.09.065
Zhang, L., Ou, C., Magana-Arachchi, D., Vithanage, M., Vanka, K. S., Palanisami, T., Masakorala, K., Wijesekara, H., Yan, Y., Bolan, N., & Kirkham, M. B. (2021). Indoor Particulate Matter in Urban Households: Sources, Pathways, Characteristics, Health Effects, and Exposure Mitigation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(21), 11055. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/21/11055
Zhang, Z., Luan, C., Wang, C., Li, T., Wu, Y., Huang, X., Jin, B., Zhang, E., Gong, Q., Zhou, X., & Li, X. (2024). Insulin resistance and its relationship with long-term exposure to ozone: Data based on a national population cohort. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 472, 134504. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134504
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Researchers Journal of Science and Technology
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
